Go to the index of other articles to do with Baptismal Integrity.
Go to John's Brinkster Home Page.

The United Free Church of Scotland General Assembly 2001 Panel on Doctrine Report on Baptism, chapter 3.

This page is a copy of the text of www.ufcos.org.uk/ga01/panel03.htm

The origins of water baptism

Jewish antecedents

Some scholars begin their study of Baptism with a discussion of pre-Christian rites involving water, on the basis that water baptism as practised by the early church was the climax ofan evolving process. Some have begun with primitive and pagan rituals. It was popular for a time to seek the origins of Christian baptism in the 'baptisms' of the mystery religions which flourished in the Graeco-Roman world during the last three centuries BC. In view of the growing recognition, in recent years, that the essential context for the formulation of Christian belief and practice is to be sought within the spiritual environs of Judaism, it has become much more common to look to the Old Testament and to Jewish practice for the origins of water baptism.

The Jewish law

Water ritual was a requirement for the High Priest on the Day of Atonement. Both before and after the ceremony he had to bathe himself in water (Lev 16.4; Ezek 44.19). In both verses the word for bathe is the Hebrew word rachats which has the general idea of wash. It is used in Genesis for the washing of feet (18.4; 19.2; 24.32; 43.24) and the washing of the face (43.31). It is a common word in Leviticus for ceremonial washing (1.9,13; 8.6,21; 9.14; etc.) though it is not the only word so used. It should be noted that the ritual here is a self-bathing rather than a baptism.

Just as the high priest had to undertake ceremonial cleansing in order to survive the localised presence of a holy God in the Most Holy Place so all the people of God had to undergo ritual cleansing as they conducted their daily affairs in the knowledge that this same holy God was with his people in a more general but no less real sense. Sexual uncleanness (Lev 15) and the uncleanness from contact with an infectious skin disease (Lev 13.4) required ritual cleansing through washing and bathing. Uncleanness through contact with dead persons required ritual cleansing through sprinkling (Num 19.13): "Because the water of cleansing has not been sprinkled on him, he is unclean." According to 19.9 the "water of cleansing" together with ashes from a sacrifice are for "purification from sin".

It would be very easy (but inept) to caricature the emphasis in the Jewish Law on outer ritual cleansing as though that were the only concern or even the main concern. As with Christians the outward sign is symbolic of an inward reality and an appropriate life-style. At least, such was the intention. The ritual may be divorced from the reality but it ought not to be. That was a major emphasis of the prophets beginning with Samuel, "Does the Lord delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as much as in obeying the voice of the Lord? To obey is better than sacrifice …" (1 Sam 15.22). Samuel is not here rejecting the concept of sacrifice as prescribed by the Law and therefore by God. That would have been anathema to him. Indeed, the very next chapter records that the prophet offered sacrifice in obedience to the Lord's instruction (16.5). In 15.22 Samuel is confronting Saul's disobedience and rejecting sacrifice as a substitute for obedience. As Joyce Baldwin puts it, "No ceremonial can make up for a rebellious attitude to God and his commands …" [1 & 2 Samuel , IVP, p 115]. Samuel's approach is reflected in the following Scripture passages: Ps 40.6-8; 51.16; Prov 21.3; Is 1.11-15; Jer 7.22; Hos 6.6; Amos 5.25; Mic 6.6-8. The concern of the psalmist and the prophets, as with Jesus, was for consistency in how one conducted one's life, e.g. Psalm 24. Flesh and spirit and, therefore, outward ritual and inward reality, were thought of in the Jewish psyche as "partners, not enemies" [The Jewish Antecedents of the Christian Sacraments, London 1928, p13]. Beasley Murray comments: "The remarkable feature … is not that the Jew or later Judaism could not distinguish between outer and inner but that he would not separate them …" [Baptism in the New Testament , Paternoster, 1972, p 7]. Outward rites and inward dispositions must be in harmony.

Old Testament anticipations of a future radical cleansing

Chapter 36 is a crucial chapter in Ezekiel's prophecy for the future restoration of God's people. It is especially interesting for our purpose because it deals with both external and internal realities. J Muilenburg observes, "Israel had made the holy land unholy; yet her holy God must maintain his holiness in the earth. Therefore (v 21) he spared them for the sake of his holy name. Yet, if the holiness of his great name was to be vindicated among the nations, then his people must be radically transformed and become a new and holy people." [Peake's Commentary on the Bible, Nelson 1962, p 586.]

According to H L Ellison the centre of this prophecy re the restoration of God's people (vv 24-28) "is based on and is an expansion of the great promise of the New Covenant in Jeremiah 31.31-34" [Ezekiel:The Man and his Message, Paternoster 1967, p 127]. The people are to receive a new heart, a new disposition and a new will. This transformation, however, will begin with God sprinkling clean water upon them "to purify them from the stain and guilt of the past" [Peake's Commentary on the Bible, Nelson 1962, p 586]: "I will sprinkle clean water on you, and you will be clean; I will cleanse you from all your impurities and from all your idols. I will give you a new heart… and I will put my Spirit in you." (Ezek 36.25,27).

It is of particular interest to us that the inner cleansing of God's people is symbolised by the sprinkling of clean water. There are two elements here worthy of note (and it is worth bearing in mind as we note them that Ezekiel was both a prophet and a priest). The first is that the imagery of ritual cleansing is related to the inner cleansing which God will bring about. Secondly and more specifically it is the imagery of 'sprinkling' that is used, the significance of which is well expressed by Peter Craigie: "As, in Ezekiel's prophecy, the transformation of heart and spirit was preceded by the symbolic sprinkling of fresh water, so in Christianity the water of baptism symbolises the transformation of heart and spirit" [Ezekiel (Daily Study Bible), The Saint Andrew Press 1983, p258].

Qumran

In the middle of the second century BC, as a result of the intrusive and paganizing influence of Greek culture, there came into existence a very loyal and conservative group of Jews known as 'the pious (or loyal) ones', i.e. the Hasidim. The Hasidim were an important group which had a lasting impact on the development of Judaism. G W Anderson has written that "the Hasidim were the spiritual ancestors of the Pharisees, the Essenes, and the Qumran sect, displaying unswerving loyalty to the law" [The History and Religion of Israel, OUP 1966, p172].

Qumran was situated in the wilderness of Judea some seven miles from the River Jordan. The men of Qumran had withdrawn from Jewish society under their 'Teacher of Righteousness'. They regarded the period in which they lived as the 'epoch of wickedness'. They had a particular abhorrence of the high priests of the day whom they regarded as illegitimate. Their purpose was to prepare for the new age which would bring the epoch of wickedness to an end. With that ever before them they practised a rigorous self-discipline and devoted themselves to the purity of body and soul.

In their passion for purity they provided for various ritual washings or bathings. In the Introduction to his translation of the Dead Sea Scrolls Geza Vermes summarises the various rituals as follows: "The Damascus Rule (XI) devotes a section to purification by water, and the War Rule (XIV) foresees that the victorious Sons of Light will so cleanse themselves after battle before attending the final ceremony of Thanksgiving. The Community Rule (III, V) refers also to a purificatory rite in connection with entry into the Covenant" [The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, Pelican 1975, p45].

It is worth noting here that the people of Qumran saw no conflict between the outward ritual and the inner condition; the two were intended to coincide. Beasley Murray observes, "Here we must remind ourselves of the fact, frequently pointed out, that the members of this sect had a clear understanding of the limitations of lustrations. They aspired to something more than ceremonial purity and they knew that lustrations of themselves could not bestow the moral purity they sought." The Qumran Manual of Discipline states, "No one is to go into the water in order to attain thepurity of holy men. For men cannot be purified except they repent their evil." It further states that a man "cannot be cleared by mere ceremonies of atonement, nor cleansed by any waters of ablution, nor sanctified by immersion in lakes or rivers, nor purified by any bath. For it is only through the spiritual apprehension of God's truth that man's ways can be properly directed. Only thus can all his iniquities be shriven so that he can gaze upon the true light of life…"

Assuming, as most scholars do (cf. F F Bruce, Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament, Paternoster 1972, p 12 footnote, John Bright, A History of Israel, SCM 1972, p 465 W Albright), that the Qumran community was essentially Essene there are a number of contemporary writers we can turn to for information. The most helpful of these is Josephus who spent a short time with the Essenes during his teenage years. He is also useful because of his description of Essene initiation procedure involving a three year probationary period. At the end of the first year there was a ritual purification in water. At the end of the second year the probationer was allowed to use the purer water reserved for full members of the sect. At the end of the third year he was allowed to share in the common meal, a token of full membership. It is also clear that ritual purifications were a regular daily occurrence for all members. As Beasley-Murray observes, "Josephus conveys the impression that the baths of the Essenes were taken not simply once daily, as is commonly assumed, but at least three times per day…"

Two questions arise out of this. (1) Is there is any connection between the ritual purifications of these pre-Christian sects and the baptism of John the Baptist and ultimately Christian baptism? (2) Is there any sense in which these ritual purifications may be regarded as baptisms? It will be recognised that these questions warrant much lengthier answers than space allows in this report. The following observations are relevant.

It has been suggested that the Baptist himself may for a time have belonged to Qumran. This is purely speculative and depends on a subjective assessment of the evidence. But even if there is truth in it, it is also true that the differences between John and Qumran are enormous. In 1959 H H Rowley concluded, "There is not a single feature of John's baptism for which there is the slightest reason to go to Qumran to look for the source" [New Testament Essays, Studies in Memory of TW Manson (ed. AJB Higgins), Manchester 1959, pp 219-23]. As recently as 1990 Alan Millard reached the same conclusion [Discoveries from the Time of Jesus , Lion 1990, p 111]. Similar differences exist between Qumran's 'baptism' and that of Christians. We may note the following distinguishing features: (a) The water rite practised at Qumran is more properly described as a bath than a baptism; (b) it was practised often, not once-for-all; (c) the initial purification rite was the same in form as subsequent purifications; (d) it was a self-administered rite; (e) the Qumran people were initiated into a community and not into their Teacher of Righteousness whereas Christians were initiated into the Messiah and his community.

The important if loose connection between the people of Qumran and the disciples of Jesus is that the water rite for both marked entry into the new covenant, the true Israel. This is explained not by a dependency of one on the other but by the fact that both groups refer back to the prophecies of Jeremiah 31.31ff and Ezekiel 36.24ff. Equally significant is that for Qumran as for Christians while circumcision was the sign of initiation into the old covenant, water is the sign of initiation into the new covenant.

Jewish proselyte baptisms

For some considerable time it was taken for granted by many scholars that Christian baptism had its origin in Jewish proselyte baptism. Jeremias, one of the most ardent contenders for this position, saw similarities between proselyte and Christian baptism in the terminology used, resemblances in baptismal instruction and administration, and theological similarities. Others have rejected Jeremias' arguments and offered alternative explanations for the similarities. There is simply insufficient evidence to show that Christian baptism in its terminology, practice and theology is derived from Jewish proselyte baptism. It is equally possible that early Christian baptism influenced the development of proselyte baptism. So, for example, Beasley Murray writes:

"Whether the New Testament writers took over the concept of dying and rising and of regeneration from Jewish thought about the proselyte it is difficult to say. Presumption would indicate that those who shaped the thought of the primitive Church could hardly have been ignorant of this teaching. On the other hand the New Testament theology of baptism revolves about two poles of thought not associated with proselyte baptism: unity with the Messiah who is Son of Man and Second Adam and who rose for the race; and, closely connected therewith, the belief that the age of resurrection and the life of the Kingdom of God has dawned in the rising of the Messiah. It would seem plausible that the familiar concepts of Jewish conversion theology were given a fresh orientation and greater depth and power by the Christian understanding of the redemptive action of the Messiah" [Baptism in the New Testament, Paternoster 1972, pp 30f].

Clearly the arguments of scholars such as Jeremias depend on a presumption that proselyte baptism preceded Christian baptism, a presumption that cannot be taken for granted. The first clear references to proselyte baptism do not appear until the second half of the first century, e.g. in the Sibylline Oracles, usually dated now about AD 80 [Infant Baptism in the First Four Centuries (tran. David Cairns), SCM 1960, p24], and the Dissertations of Epictetus dated c AD 90 [Infant Baptism in the First Four Centuries (tran. David Cairns), SCM 1960, p24]. The more important references, however, are those which appear in Rabbinic literature. These are dated by most scholars between AD 70-90.

While there are scholars who have posited a much earlier date for the references, e.g. Jeremias, the conclusion of Beasley Murray is well justified: "a saying whose significance and origin are so dubious as this has no claim to confidence as a means of determining so complex an issue" [Baptism in the New Testament, Paternoster 1972, p23f]. Widely regarded as significant is Josephus' detailed account of a Gentile king, Izates, becoming a Jewish proselyte. Izates ruled from AD 30 to 54. In his account Josephus has much to say about circumcision and nothing at all to say about baptism.

Second half of this chapter: John the Baptist.

Go to the index of other articles to do with Baptismal Integrity.
Go to John's Brinkster Home Page.

This web page was last updated on 15th April 2004.